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History of walls

Walls, with a wall history dating back thousands of years and having a multitude of designs and forms, are one of the most basic components of construction. In terms of construction applications, walls can have two main purposes: to act as a support for a structure and to divide or enclose an area. This article deals primarily with the latter: walls that are typically detached from other structures and serve as a barrier to divide and enclose areas. A wall can be constructed from a variety of different materials while employing numerous techniques, some of which are discussed in the Wall Construction Methods section below. At the end, modern day wall applications and uses are described. Walls, including the Great Wall of China, the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, or the Berlin Wall, have been an integral part every society in written history. In fact, one of the oldest walls still standing today is the Great Wall of China, which began construction as early as 300 BC. Walls originally kept in animals and other belongings and kept out enemies. Early cities used various types of wall as a necessity to defend from attacks. Later, walls served as decorative fence barriers dividing land and marking property. This is seen today in residential areas where yards and properties are adjacent and privacy is desired, or to act as retaining walls. Early walls were made from dry stone construction, also called stone fences or dykes. This simple construction method was being used in parts of Africa and South America as early as 1300 BC; today examples of this type of mortar-less wall can still be seen in the United Kingdom and the United States. The use of mortar in wall construction was first developed by the Chinese and later popularized by the Romans. A wall that is built with mortar is much stronger and durable than its dry stone counterpart. With the introduction of mortar, brick, block and other types of earth became more popular in wall construction. A more recent development in wall construction is the use of concrete and precast concrete in the building of walls. A concrete wall can be poured in place; in this process, a cement fence form is brought to the site, and the concrete is poured directly where it will stand. Precast concrete walls are similar but can be cast in a molding facility and later shipped and lifted into place. The wall is expanding in its types of applications. Walls can be used in the classic defense barriers or land markers as well as for sound and wind barriers, artful decorations and a wide variety of other uses. Walls are as staple a construction today as they have been for thousands of years. (Shvedova O)

http://www.actionwallties.co.uk/domestic-clients/cavity-wall-constructed-housing/cavity-wall-construction-history-2.html

The History of Cavity Wall Insulation

Ancient stone walls were not waterproof and not insulated.

For most of its long history, "cavity wall" referred strictly to masonry, and involved no insulation other than the mass of the wall material and the air space itself. According to the Masonry Advisory Council, the main reason for the space in cavity wall construction was to prevent moisture penetration. Insulation to retard the flow of heat is a relatively modern innovation. Related Searches: 1. Greek and Roman Cavity Walls o Hundreds of years ago, the ancient Greeks and Romans built masonry walls made of multiple vertical layers, called wythes. In some, a vertical space, or cavity, was left between the inner and outer wythes with regularly spaced stones turned crosswise to tie the layers together. Wind-driven rain that penetrated the mortar joints in the outer wythe flowed down inside the air space and out through weep holes at the bottom, rather than making it all the way into the building interior. Modern calculations assign an R-value of just 0.44 per inch to the air space in cavity walls. A dry room probably felt warmer than a damp one, but the air space did little to impede the transmission of heat through the stone.

Great Britain o In the early 1800s, builders in Great Britain began to use cavity construction for the exterior walls of brick buildings, with brick headers across as much as a 6-inch gap between wythes. By mid-century, metal ties had come into use, but any thermal insulation was installed on the interior walls, not between wythes.

United States o Builders in the United States began using similar cavity wall construction in the 1930s. Energy for heating and cooling was cheap and moisture control was still the primary reason to build cavities into exterior walls. Typical masonry cavity walls were made of two or three wythes of brick, or a single exterior wythe of brick tied to a backup wall of 8-inch concrete blocks.

Energy Costs o The oil embargo of the 1970s brought a suddenly sharp increase in energy costs, and the incentive to design more effective thermal barriers into exterior walls. Rigid panels of foam insulation, applied to the inner face of the cavity, are able to withstand exposure to moisture and increase the effective R-value of the masonry wall composite.

Stud Wall Cavities o Modern stud-frame construction creates another cavity wall--inside the moisture envelope of the building--making it suitable for insulation materials that must stay dry to be effective. Fibrous insulation materials, such as fiberglass, mineral wool and cellulose, are relatively inexpensive products to improve both thermal and sound transmission through walls. Exterior grade foam insulation can be used in stud wall cavities but requires a gypsum board or plaster fire-barrier covering.

Modern Methods o Modern construction incorporates both interior and exterior cavity insulation, even when the exterior wall finish is something other than brick or masonry. Effective use of cavity insulation helps reduce energy used to heat and cool buildings. Organizations such as the National Association of Home Builders Research Center are working to find ways to use recycled materials and to develop insulation products that use less energy to produce.

http://www.ehow.com/about_6602510_history-cavity-wall-insulation.html (Shvedova)))

‍The classification of the walls.
The wall - the main elements of the design of the building, and on the choice of their type depend on many parameters of the future house: external or internal appeal, comfort, heat- and sound insulation, fire resistance, possibility of application of auxiliary equipment and furniture, and finally, factors such as the ecological cleanliness of the home.In construction, depending on destination, the walls are divided into external and internal. In the perception of loads walls are divided on the load-bearing and non-bearing. Good quality walls provide strength and stability, weather resistance, fire resistance, thermal insulation and sound insulation. Depending on the type of material used in the construction of walls, they can be All construction of wall can be divided into four main groups. Another form of construction adapted for framed or earth buildings consists of relatively light sheeting secured to the face of the wall to form the enclosed element. These are generally termed 'claddings'.Factors which will determine the type of wall to be used are: When choosing the material for the erection of the walls should be taken into account "rule of homogeneity" - all capital (bearing) wall should be built of the same material, and based on the same foundation. It only allows the combination of brick with lightweight concrete and DSPS (cement-shaving plates) and wood in the hull frame wall. Another sign by which classified the wall, "their constructive solution. In this respect, the walls are divided into monolithic, small- and крупноблочные, panel, panel, frame, prefabricated (срубовые and log), combined.
 * Load-bearing wall is a natural continuation of the foundation and is an essential element of the construction of the building, it serves as a base for the beams or concrete tiles, ceiling or attic floors, that is, the "bears" on a kind of load. During the dismantling of the bearing wall violate the integrity of the building.
 * Non-bearing walls, the wall is a wall, the main purpose of which is the separation of facilities into several parts or allocation in the room of functional zones. Its removal does not entail a redistribution of loads in the construction of the building. Non-bearing walls, a wall or a partition can only be internal.
 * wooden (made of logs, boards, one- and two-layer frames with a shell of boards),
 * brick (from solid, hollow, ceramic, silicate bricks and blocks),
 * stone (from cobble stone, limestone, limestone, tuff stone, sandstone),
 * concrete (from heavy concrete of different grades - slabs and blocks, as well as of lightweight concrete - cellular-concrete, claydite-owned, breeze, foam concrete, raspings-concrete blocks).
 * Masonry wall, in which the wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as brick, clay or concrete blocks, or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together with some form of mortar. Several of the earth derived products, either air dried or fired, are reasonable in cost and well suited to the climate.
 * Monolithic wall, in which the wall is built of a material placed in forms during the construction. The traditional earth wall and the modern concrete wall are examples. The earth walls are inexpensive and durable if placed on a good foundation and protected from rain by a rendering or wide roof overhangs.
 * Frame wall, in which the wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members, usually of timber, at close intervals which together with facing or sheething on one or both sides form a load-bearing system. Offcuts are a lowcost material to use for a frame wall covering.
 * Membrane wall, in which the wall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets of reinforced plastic, metal, asbestos-cement or other suitable material bonded to a core of foamed plastic to produce a thin wall element of high strength and low weight.
 * The materials available at a reasonable cost.
 * Availability of craftsmen capable of using the materials in the best way.
 * Climate
 * The use of the building - functional requirements.

[] [] Cost of constructions

Walling home owner costs approximately 15-20 percent of the cost of building a box at home. But do not try to save much on this, as on how well erected the exterior walls will depend on durability of the structure. Not unimportant role in building the walls and playing material from which they are made. Let us consider a few important characteristics of wall materials.Durability. From this characteristic depends on the attractiveness of the object, no one wants to buy himself a country house, knowing that it will last for decades. Considered the most reliable materials based on ceramics, laminated veneer lumber and aerated. But also affects the quality of life for ongoing construction and erection of the correctness of the design.The rate of construction. As with the erection of any structure it is important to spend the least time, of course without compromising quality to save on the labor of workers, renting equipment and so on. Therefore, applying krupnoelementnye materials can significantly reduce the time the construction of the walls. Since the walls of keramoblokov, concrete blocks, laminated board can be built in a few weeks.The complexity of the design. If you use a complex structure there is a need for skilled workers, which in our time is very difficult to find. Therefore, raising such a single-layer wall with material having good thermal insulation performance of the parameters can achieve a good result. Such materials include concrete, laminated board, keramobloki and others. Also, in the present market solutions for reducing heat loss through the joints in the masonry, they have compared to the conventional solution is several times lower thermal conductivity. Achieve reduction of heat loss is possible using a special glue, thanks to his size joints in the masonry can be reduced to a few millimeters (the surface of blocks at the same time to be polished).**Erection of brick wall at home.** During the construction of load-bearing walls are used at home full-bodied ceramic or more energy efficient - hollow brick. Brick, in turn, is of three kinds, depending on its size. Single with 250h120h65 size, one and a half and double 250x120x88 mm 250h120h138. Save fails, using a hollow one and a half and double ceramic brick by reducing the complexity of building walls and a decrease in its conductivity. If the wall is multilayered, it is used for wall cladding or clinker.Consider the points that you should pay attention to when building the walls. Before attempting the build a wall to carry out work to prevent contact with the concrete plinth brick home, by creating a layer between them in waterproofing material as brick absorbs moisture through its capillaries. Much attention is paid to the proper laying of the first row of bricks, it will depend on the continued quality of masonry, so it must be strictly horizontal.In order to evenly distribute the load in the body wall, it is necessary to make the dressing. Thus, when the single-row clutches ligation bonder alternate with rows of Stretcher bond, while multilayered bandaging contrary Stretcher bond alternate with bonder, in 3-5 rows. Reinforcement of masonry produce 5-6 series with pomoschyut masonry welded wire mesh, it makes the design more durable. Sutures are laying their own standards, which must be kept. Vertical shall not exceed 15 mm. And the horizontal 12 mm.Masonry walls, in which the two brick walls are built on a common foundation with insulation packed between them, called kolodtsevoy. The walls in this case, connect the metal rods (bonds). You also need to link roughing and Brickwork.**The construction of the walls of keramoblokov.**Keramobloki used in the construction of the walls of country houses can have different lengths, which depends on the thickness of the wall being built, ranging from 80 mm and ending with 500 mm. In our latitudes (near Moscow), enough thickness of 380 mm or more to build walls without insulation. Keramobloki convenient in that they have great size and replace the 5 to 16 standard bricks, thus accelerating the construction of walls and reduce labor costs. At the output we get a smooth and even surface of the wall, which makes it easy to work on finishing.**The construction of the walls with** ** retained EPS formwork. ** Very attractive technique of building walls, as the manufacturer promises that the wall thickness of 250 mm. will meet all modern codes and standards for thermal protection of a country house. The design of formwork is prefabricated polystyrene blocks and the size of 1000h250h250 1250h300h250 mm, consisting of two walls connected by bridges. Distinguish between ordinary and end blocks. Voids in the blocks are arranged in vertical and horizontal direction, and later there is established fixture diameter of 10-12 mm and filled with concrete. The result is a monolithic insulated wall. For the layout of utilities prior to pouring concrete pipes laid in the place provided by the project. Finish of the wall of polystyrene blocks do.**Walling of concrete blocks.** Aerated concrete blocks can also be attributed to energy-saving materials. Single-layer wall being constructed of blocks of 600h300h200 mm with a density of 500 kg/m3 can provide thermal protection regulatory cottage. Aerated concrete blocks are made from 100 to 400 millimeters and can replace up to 18 standard bricks, thereby increasing the speed of the erection of walls, and reduced labor costs. The undoubted advantage is also a light weight blocks.For the walls of aerated concrete is suitable as a band and slab foundation. If the strip foundation piece, you'll need to arrange a monolithic reinforced strapping a belt around the perimeter of the building. In the process of building a wall, reinforced masonry in accordance with the project, reinforcement must be long walls and the first row of blocks.The walls are being constructed out of concrete blocks are obtained even and smooth, greatly simplifying the operation of the device otdelke.Pri overlap for a country house of the plates on the walls of lightweight concrete is required to work on the device monolithic reinforced zone to increase the carrying capacity. In the process of finishing the work should be aware that aerated and porous material absorbs moisture, so high humidity is required to produce a vapor barrier. Another situation with the outer wall decoration material which is finishing must be vapor-permeable (hinged facade, wood, etc.). When the device facing brick walls, you want to leave a gap between the facing brickwork and the main wall of concrete blocks to provide ventilation.**Erection of partition walls at home.** The most common material for walls of a frame house is a tree, but sometimes as metal studs are used. For the device used conventional timber frame timber, glued laminated timber and boards. Once erected frame between the uprights and set the heater plate materials sewn with wind-guard layer. The result is light and warm outer wall. Wall thickness of 200 mm is sufficient to ensure regulation of the heat treatment of the Moscow region.**Erection of wooden walls.** When erecting the walls of the tree should be noted, first of all the timber from which the assembly will be done. So if the wood will have a moisture content of more than 14 percent, further possible distortion and shrinkage.In today's market there are three main types of material for the construction of the wooden walls of houses. The first is a good and long known to us - solid timber. The cross sections make rectangular, square or D-shaped, with sides measuring 120 millimeters. According to their thermal properties by 50 percent gains in logs with sizes ranging from 180 millimeters. Round logs has a circular cross section and a second type of material for the construction of the wooden walls of a country house.The newest of the three species, is laminated veneer lumber, which thermal efficiency ahead of its competitors, although it will have to pay more money. Released its size from 75 to 300 millimeters. http://www.zamkaddom.ru/stroitelstvo-doma/vozvedenie Conclusion

The constructive solution of the walls and materials for their construction, depending on the local climatic conditions, given the strength and durability of the building, the desired level of comfort of habitation and architectural expressiveness of the facade. The stone walls of the most durable and long-lived, however, as a constructive wall material in the modern individual construction, they are very seldom used due to its low heat-insulating properties. Use of stone for construction of the walls is expedient only in the southern regions. In the middle belt of Russia, stone material (typically crushed stone) is usually used when laying the foundation. In recent decades, the most popular type of wall materials (in case of building construction) is brick. Thanks to the use of different types of bricks and the application of various technologies of their masonry can be folded strong, not heavy on the wall, have good heat and sound insulating properties. Concrete walls also have high strength and durability, but lower on a number of indicators of the other types of walls (for example, they have relatively low coefficient of heat preservation). The advantages of the walls of lightweight concrete. - the ability to quickly and less labour-intensive construction works, but also the fact that they are in 1,5 - 2 times cheaper than brick. Wooden walls of the warmest and friendly, they have good sound insulation, but inferior to brick in the durability, strength and fire resistance. In addition, the cost of construction timber in recent years has increased markedly. However, the individual developers wood as a constructive wall building material continues to be quite popular. So, after analyzing allthe options proposedabove, we decided to usefoam concreteas a base materialfor the constructionof the wallsin our climate.